History of nepal army

After King Mahendra (Gyanendra's father) and his Royal Nepalese Army (RNA), overthrew his government in 1960, the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Nepal BP Koirala asked himself in his jail diary: "Is the democratic system in Nepal compatible with the preponderance of the Nepalese Army?" After five decades of the democracy movement in Nepal, this question still haunts the Nepalis. Mesmerised by the royal proximity, Nepali democrats have time and again lapsed into amnesia, comfortably and willingly. But by one or another way the question has found expression and has been answered negatively in the popular upsurges and daily struggles of the downtrodden.

As Nepal's foremost revolutionary leader Prachanda stated, just after the royal coup in February 2005, "Ultimately, the so-called royal proclamation of February 1 has not only exposed the irrelevance of reformism in the Nepalese politics, but also shattered the collective lethargy of the parliamentary political politics.". Although the reinstatement of the old parliament once again poses the danger of the relapse of the "collective lethargy", the politically charged Nepali masses are ever watchful of the parliamentarist deviations. Along with the issue of forming the Constituent Assembly, the question of controlling the RNA is going to be one of the decisive (and divisive) elements in the course of the Nepali democratic revolution.

This army has been the major force behind enforcing the betrayal of the democratic aspirations of the Nepali people for more than five decades. Nevertheless, as Marxist-Maoist leader Baburam Bhattarai rightly notes, "Any ordinary student of military science would know, the victory or defeat of a particular army ultimately depends more on its social class base and the political goal." And, "the feudal reactionary nature of the royal army and its complete hegemonisation by the ruling Shah-Rana families may be gauged from the fact that of the thirty commander-in-chiefs since 1835, twenty-six belonged to the ruling Shah-Ranas and four to their close courtiers, Thapa-Basnets. Hence, there should be no doubt, at least to the progressive and modern-minded, that the current fight in Nepal is précised for ending this age-old feudal tyranny and to usher in a real democracy suited to the 21st century."

The RNA has been the major "saboteur", "with the prompting of some foreign powers" (whom we are all familiar with) in every peace talk in Nepal. Its time-tested principal method of sabotage is senseless massacres of the civilians in the name of defending its soldiers against the revolutionaries while the peace process is going on. In 2003, "the most serious and provocative incident was the massacre of nineteen unarmed political activists by the RNA in Doramba (Eastern Nepal) on the very day of start of third round of talks on August 17". Again, a few days back on April 29, on the eve of GP Koirala's swearing in ceremony as a result of the mass upsurge that we saw recently, "Royal Nepalese Army (RNA) launched an aerial attack on a peaceful mass meet called by the CPN (Maoist)... An RNA chopper rained bullets on the mass meet organised in the jungle adjoining a human settlement, where around 10,000 civilians were gathered for the program".

The RNA is definitely a major concern, as it gets more and more desperate about its own future with the debilitating royalty. International powers that have been arming the reactionary RNA are already having meetings with its chief and other officials, enquiring about their Will.

On April 3, in a press conference after the meeting, Boucher was asked whether he thinks "the Royal Nepalese Army is going to be one of the decision makers in future instead of parliament".

Boucher's reply was, "I don't think I quite used the word decision maker, but I said something like that. I think that the army is going to have a very important role to play. The army has to help defend the nation; it has to help defend the nation against threats. They also have to be able to implement the ceasefire, and carry it out. So I wanted to check with the army and see, first of all, that they were supporting the political process, that they were supporting the civilian leaders in Nepal, and second of all talk to them about how they saw their job in the days ahead, and how, when a civilian leadership wanted us to, we could support them in the future."

What a mode of professing a civilian control over the RNA! A US official makes an official visit to find the will of the Army chief directly, whether he supports the political process or not, instead of asking the government to ensure the submission of the RNA to the civilian control.

However this incident is not at all surprising, since US Ambassador James Moriarty's chief job after the 12-point agreement between the parliamentary forces and the Maoists last year has been to defend the RNA's existence in every significant statement. He has been trying hard to mobilise the moderate and wavering democrats and former prime minsiters, like GP Koirala and Sher Bahadur Deuba who were the main exponents of using the RNA to crush People's War till recently. Replicating Conan Doyle's Professor Moriarty - a Supervillain or the "Napoleon of Crime", the US Ambassador time and again has been tying to make the democrats, who lack Moriarty's "common sense", understand the virtue of not weakening the RNA, which he calls, in one of his nauseating self-proclaimed "provocative" speeches, "the parties' one logical source of defense", despite the well-known fact that it has never respected the self-styled democratic leadership.

If we can learn something from the US's history of imperialist intervention and of nurturing military juntas, we can at least be sure of the US's desperation in Nepal to preclude the Nicaragua-type situation, where the revolutionaries disbanded Somoza's army, and even after the Sandinistas' defeat in 1990, the Sandinista Army remained as the popular national army and the prime vehicle of democratisation (notwithstanding a considerable dilution of the army's revolutionary character). As an ex-Nicaraguan Army chief Joaquí­n Cuadra Lacayo said in the year 2000: "Despite everything the Sandinista revolution eventually led to free elections and democracy, and...the Sandinista People's Army became the National Army of Nicaragua. For the first time in the history of Latin America, an army that was born as a guerrilla force and matured as part of a government became an army for the nation without political overtones." In spite of the fact that the ruling elite of Nicaragua has reversed the major gains of the Sandinista Revolution, and the military is completely integrated with the State, the popular revolutionary past of the Army officials and Sandino's portraits in military headquarters and offices still haunt the US and the local elites. An obvious question for the global hegemony today is: where will the army be once the new radicalism that is gripping Latin America affects Nicaragua? Obviously, the Nicaraguan arrangement can never keep paranoiac imperialists at ease. Therefore ensuring a premature disarming of the Maoists, without crushing the R(oyalty) of the RNA, is the prime game plan of the international hegemonies and their local cahoots in Nepal.

History of cricket

The game of cricket has always been loved by the entire country. Whenever a tournament starts, the cricket enthusiasts forget their daily work and sticks to his/her television set. The majority of cricket lovers have a thorough knowledge of the cricket history. Cricket history can take you to the 16th century era or even back to give you an insight into the origin of game. The history of cricket throws light on every aspect of the cricket, be it county cricket, local cricket or international cricket. Cricket history also informs about the initial rules and regulations formed, for playing the game.

Cricket history informs you about the origin of bat, which is one of the prime things in the game. The bat used in the present tournaments was invented in 18th century; while the earlier form of bat resembled a hockey stick. In the earlier times, stone pieces were used as balls. They are now made up of cork and are covered with hand-stitched leather quarters. Cricket history has always been a source of information for the cricket lovers. This information can also be used as reference material, when a cricket enthusiast needs to have a comprehensive knowledge of the game.

Cricket history depicts the true spirit of the game. This history familiarizes you with the tradition and culture of cricket. Cricket history always raised the curiosity of the cricket enthusiasts. It is because cricket history sharpens their knowledge about the game and makes a core base for them. In fact, cricket history helps the enthusiasts to delve deep into the game and understand the facts. The game of cricket has earned a wide acclaim and its popularity chart is increasing with the passage of time.

The Cricket History is a complete encyclopedia of various sides of the game. Cricket was first played by adults in the beginning of 17th century, in some parts of Sussex and Kent. In the same century, the cricket spread to North America via English colonies. In 18th century, the cricket moved to West Indies and India. Similarly, it spread to New Zealand and South Africa in 19th century. This part of the cricket history informs about the increasing popularity of the game in various parts of the world.

The game of cricket has got a rich history that unfolds interesting facts about the game. Rules and regulations have been an important part of the game. Cricket history has got all the details about the earlier formation of rules. In 1727, the "articles of agreement" was formed to determine the code of practice. The rules were further amended in 1774 after the innovation of middle stumps, lbw and other factors. Cricket history does not end here; rather it has a whole lot of information about the nitty-gritty of cricket.

History of Nepal

On June 1, 2001 the Heir Apparent Dipendra went on a killing spree in the royal palace in an angry response to his parent's refusal to accept his choice for a wife. He shot and killed the king Birendra and queen Ayswari, as well as several other royal cousins before turning the gun on himself. His suicide attempt failed however, and although in a comatose state, he was proclaimed king in his hospital bed. He died a few days later. Following this, his uncle (Birendra's brother) Gyanendra was proclaimed king on June 4.

Politics of Nepal
The former king Birendra was open to parliamentary democracy, and restored it after a referendum in 1990. However, the quarrels between various political parties and numerous social problems caused a Maoist rebellion which has been escalating since 1996. Since the ascension of Gyanendra the king has been trying to excercise more control over the government to combat the rebellion and other problems.

Zones of Nepal
Nepal is divided into 14 zones (anchal, singular and plural): Bagmati, Bheri, Dhawalagiri, Gandaki, Janakpur, Karnali, Koshi, Lumbini, Mahakali, Mechi, Narayani, Rapti, Sagarmatha, Seti.

Geography of Nepal
Nepal is landlocked between China and India; total land area 147,181 square kilometers. The terrain is mountainous and hilly, although with physical diversity. Three broad physiographic areas run laterally--lowland Terai Region in the south; central lower mountains and hills constituting the Hill Region; the high Himalayas, with 8,848-meters-high Mount Everest and other peaks forming Mountain Region in north. Of Nepal's total land area, only 20 percent is cultivatable. Deforestation is a severe problem.
Nepal has five climatic zones based on altitude that range from ppsubtropical in the south, to cool summers and severe winters in the north. There is annual rainfall with seasonal variations depending on the monsoon cycle, which provides 60 to 80 percent of the total annual rainfall: 2,500 millimeters in eastern part of country; 1,420 millimeters around Kathmandu; 1,000 millimeters in western Nepal.

Economy of Nepal
Nepal is among the poorest and least developed countries in the world with nearly half of its population living below the poverty line (with, as of 2001, a per capita income of just over $240 U.S.). Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing a livelihood for over 80% of the population and accounting for 41% of GDP. Industrial activity mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce including jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. Production of textiles and carpets has expanded recently and accounted for about 80% of foreign exchange earnings in the past three years. Agricultural production is growing by about 5% on average as compared with annual population growth of 2.3%.
Since May 1991, the government has been moving forward with economic reforms, particularly those that encourage trade and foreign investment, e.g., by reducing business licenses and registration requirements in order to simplify investment procedures. The government has also been cutting expenditures by reducing subsidies, privatizing state industries, and laying off civil servants. More recently, however, political instability - five different governments over the past few years - has hampered Kathmandu's ability to forge consensus to implement key economic reforms. Nepal has considerable scope for accelerating economic growth by exploiting its potential in hydropower and tourism, areas of recent foreign investment interest. Prospects for foreign trade or investment in other sectors will remain poor, however, because of the small size of the economy, its technological backwardness, its remoteness, its landlocked geographic location, and its susceptibility to natural disaster. The international community's role of funding more than 60% of Nepal's development budget and more than 28% of total budgetary expenditures will likely continue as a major ingredient of growth.

Demographics of Nepal
Nepal has three major ethnic groups in terms of origin: Indo-Nepalese, Tibeto-Nepalese, and indigenous Nepalese, composed of Newah, Bhote, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Gurung, Tamang, Magar, Thakali, Brahman, and other smaller ethnic groups.
Nepali, written in Devanagari script, is the official, national language spoken by almost 60 percent of population. More than twelve other languages with numerous dialects are used, although they are rarely spoken outside ethnic enclaves.
Nepal is the only official Hindu state in world, although a synthesis of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs is actually practiced. About 89.5 percent of population is Hindu, approximately 5.3 percent and 2.7 percent, are Buddhist and Muslim, respectively.

History of WWE

The split from the NWA & formation of the WWWFThe National Wrestling Alliance was a group of promoters who each ran their own geographic territories and shared the same World Champion. Because the Northeast promoters became too powerful and were making it hard to get the champion, Buddy Rogers to appear in other territories, the other promoters pulled a power play and voted for Lou Thez to become champ, a wrestler they knew wasn’t too popular in the Northeast. In 1963, the Northeast promoters formed the World Wide Wrestling Federation. In one of their first matches, Bruno Sammartino beat Buddy Rogers to become champion. The most powerful promoters of this new federation were Vince McMahon Sr. and Toots Mondt.

The '70s
The first decade and a half of the WWF was dominated by Bruno Sammartino and Pedro Morales. Vince’s idea of having a strong ethnic champion that represented the nationalities of his customers was a very successful idea. During this time, Madison Square Garden in New York City became known as the mecca of professional wrestling. The fans in this part of the country loved to see big men fight each other while the other parts of the country featured a more amateur style of wrestling. After Mondt’s death in 1976, the company was renamed The World Wrestling Federation. Vince McMahon Sr. was very old school and believed his wrestlers should be wrestlers and avoid the limelight because of the inevitable questions about the legitamcy of wrestling. He fired one of his stars for appearing in a movie. That star was Hulk Hogan. Hulk went on to fight for Verne Gagne and the American Wrestling Association, the only other rival to the NWA which was based in the mid-west.

The new boss and a new business idea
Vince Sr. sold the company to his son in 1983. If his father knew what his son had planned, he might not have sold it to him. Vince knew that with the advent of cable TV, wrestling would not be a regional business anymore. He set out to conquer the wrestling world. In one of his first moves, he signed Hulk Hogan and used him as his ambassador for his brand of wrestling. Vince then started invading other territories by signing their stars, appearing in their local arenas and appearing on the local stations in their area. Vince saw the attention a small promotion in Memphis got when Andy Kaufman got involved in wrestling and he wanted that type of exposure.

Rock-n-Wrestling EraWrestling manager Lou Albano appeared in Cyndi Lauper’s video “Girls Just Wanna Have Fun”. McMahon took advantage of this publicity by involving Lauper in his programming. This led to a match being featured live on MTV between the Fabulous Moolah (with Lou Albano) and Wendi Richter (with Cyndi Lauper). As Vince was expanding, it was costing him a lot of money to get TV time and he needed to do something big. In a make or break event for the company, Vince got Mr. T to main event in the first WrestleMania in 1985 and the WWF became an unstoppable force. All this exposure led to incredible licensing agreements that were previously non-existent in the wrestling business and a show on NBC that broadcast on some of the weeks Saturday Night Live wasn’t filming. While critics of his brand of wrestling complained it was becoming too cartoonish, Vince was making money on a WWF based cartoon that featured Brad Garret as the voice of Hulk Hogan. Vince was putting the other promoters out of business and by this point only had one real opponent left to conquer, Jim Crockett , who had a show on TBS. This era of wrestling was highlighted by the 1987 event WrestleMania 3 which set a North American indoor attendance record with an attendance of over 90,000 people. Even more importantly, this event was the first truly successful event for the pay per view industry.

THE TIGER

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is a member of the Felidae family; the largest of the four "big cats" in the genus Panthera. Native to much of eastern and southern Asia, the tiger is an apex predator and an obligate carnivore. Reaching up to 4 metres (13 ft) in total length and weighing up to 300 kilograms (660 pounds), the larger tiger subspecies are comparable in size to the biggest extinct felids. A side from their great bulk and power, their most recognizable feature is the pattern of dark vertical stripes that overlays near-white to reddish-orange fur, with lighter underparts. The most numerous tiger subspecies is the Bengal tiger while the largest subspecies is the Siberian tiger.
Highly adaptable, tigers range from the Siberian taiga, to open grasslands, to tropical mangrove swamps. They are territorial and generally solitary animals, often requiring large contiguous areas of habitat that support their prey demands. This, coupled with the fact that they are endemic to some of the more densely populated places on earth, has caused significant conflicts with humans. Of the nine subspecies of modern tiger, three are extinct and the remaining six are classified as endangered, some critically so. The primary direct causes are habitat destruction and fragmentation, and hunting. Their historical range, which once reached from Mesopotamia and the Caucasus through most of South and East Asia, has been radically reduced. While all surviving species are under formal protection, poaching, habitat destruction and inbreeding depression continue to be threats.
Nonetheless, tigers are among the most recognizable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. They have featured prominently in ancient mythology and folklore, and continue to be depicted in modern films and literature. Tigers appear on many flags and coats of arms, as mascots for sporting teams, and as the national animal of several Asian nations.

Naming and etymology
The word "tiger" is taken from the Greek word "tigris", which is possibly derived from a Persian source meaning "arrow", a reference to the animal's speed and also the origin for the name of the River Tigris. In American English, "Tigress" was first recorded in 1611. It was one of the many species originally described, as Felis tigris, by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae. The generic component of its scientific designation, Panthera tigris, is often presumed to derive from Greek pan- ("all") and theron ("beast"), but this may be a folk etymology. Although it came into English through the classical languages, panthera is probably of East Asian origin, meaning "the yellowish animal," or "whitish-yellow".

Range
In the historical past, tigers were widespread in Asia, from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, to Siberia and Indonesia. During the 19th century the striped cats completely vanished from western Asia, and became restricted to isolated pockets in the remaining parts of their range. Today, this fragmented relic range extends from India in the west to China and Southeast Asia in the east. The northern limit is close to the Amur River in south eastern Siberia. The only large island inhabited by tigers today is Sumatra. Tigers vanished from Java and Bali during the 20th century, and in Borneo are known only from fossil remains.

Physical characteristics, taxonomy and evolution
The oldest remains of a tiger-like cat, called Panthera palaeosinensis, have been found in China and Java. This species lived about 2 million years ago, at the beginning of the Pleistocene, and was smaller than a modern tiger. The earliest fossils of true tigers are known from Java, and are between 1.6 and 1.8 million years old. Distinct fossils from the early and middle Pleistocene were also discovered in deposits from China, and Sumatra. A subspecies called the Trinil tiger (Panthera tigris trinilensis) lived about 1.2 million years ago and is known fossils found at Trinil in Java.
Tigers first reached India and northern Asia in the late Pleistocene, reaching eastern Beringia (but not the American Continent), Japan, and Sakhalin. Fossils found in Japan indicate that the local tigers were, like the surviving island subspecies, smaller than the mainland forms. This may be due to the phenomenon in which body size is related to environmental space (see insular dwarfism), or perhaps the availability of prey. Until the Holocene, tigers also lived in Borneo, as well as on the island of Palawan in the Philippines.

Physical characteristics

Siberian tiger
Tigers are perhaps the most recognisable of all the cats (with the possible exception of the lion). They typically have rusty-reddish to brown-rusty coats, a whitish medial and ventral area, a white "fringe" that surrounds the face, and stripes that vary from brown or gray to pure black. The form and density of stripes differs between subspecies (as well as the ground coloration of the fur; for instance, Siberian tigers are usually paler than other tiger subspecies), but most tigers have over 100 stripes. The pattern of stripes is unique to each animal, and thus could potentially be used to identify individuals, much in the same way as fingerprints are used to identify people. This is not, however, a preferred method of identification, due to the difficulty of recording the stripe pattern of a wild tiger. It seems likely that the function of stripes is camouflage, serving to help tigers conceal themselves amongst the dappled shadows and long grass of their environment as they stalk their prey. The stripe pattern is found on a tiger's skin and if shaved, its distinctive camouflage pattern would be preserved. Like other big cats, tigers have a white spot on the backs of their ears.

Skeleton
Tigers have the additional distinction of being the heaviest cats found in the wild. They also have powerfully built legs and shoulders, with the result that they, like lions, have the ability to pull down prey substantially heavier than themselves. However, the subspecies differ markedly in size, tending to increase proportionally with latitude, as predicted by Bergmann's Rule. Thus, large male Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) can reach a total length of 3.5 m "over curves" (3.3 m. "between pegs") and a weight of 306 kilograms, which is considerably larger than the sizes reached by island-dwelling tigers such as the Sumatran, the smallest living subspecies with a body weight of only 75-140 kg. Tigresses are smaller than the males in each subspecies, although the size difference between male and female tigers tends to be more pronounced in the larger subspecies of tiger, with males weighing up to 1.7 times as much as the females. In addition, male tigers have wider forepaw pads than females. This difference is often used by biologists in determining the gender of tigers when observing their tracks. The skull of the tiger is very similar to that of the lion, though the frontal region is usually not as depressed or flattened, with a slightly longer postorbital region. The lion's skull has broader nasal openings. However, due to the amount of skull variation in the two species, usually, only the structure of the lower jaw can be used as a reliable indicator of species.

RADIO MEMORIES NETWORK

Mike Tucker, 35, collects OTR and works as a small-press comic book artist.

And Dennis Humphrey, 58. Humphrey is a Johns Hopkins University graduate and has taught at the college and university level. He's been collecting Old Time Radio materials for 35 years and speaks for the group.

Radio Guide: Tell me about your Radio Memories podcast. Why did you decide to bring to life Radio from so long ago?

Humphrey: Radio Memories is the culmination of a love of the early days of radio. The mysteries, the westerns, the music, the comedy, all the way back to the earliest years of broadcasting. I and my colleagues all have a love of history that is rich many of the cultural icons that make up the fabric of our culture.

I am assembling a great team of collectors and radio historians, that will provide expert commentary from years of research and experience. This is a journey that each of us take as we collect and listen to the years before television, to the most thrilling days of radio, at its very best. We all desire to share these programs with the next generation that are discovering the wealth of great programs that are timeless. It is all about sharing what we love with others.
Radio Guide: Don't you feel it ironic that you're saluting the greatness of one medium's era with a new competing medium?

Humphrey: Competing? No! Changing? Yes! Historically, the early days of radio was very simular to what is developing today with podcasting. In early radio, anyone with the means could produce their own content and offer it on the airwaves (which was the new technology of the time). With the development of the Internet, once again we are on the treshold of repeating the exciting early years of radio. In a ironic way podcasting is just radio wrapped in a new wrapper.
Radio Guide: Do you think Podcasting is here to stay? It's certainly this year's buzz word. Where do you think things will go in the future?

Humphrey: If anything from history is to be learned, nothing stays the same, it changes. I believe Podcasting is following a simular path that radio took, perhaps therein lays the lesson we should heed.

Podcasting as with early radio, is free, open to anyone who can or wants to offer something or nothing. Some will drop off due to lack of interest or lack of listeners. Others will want to move to a new level of involvement, i.e., monetizing of Podcasting by pay-per-podcasting models that will allow them to achieve even more and make a living out of doing what the love or some other marketing methodology to achieve their goals of becoming self sufficiant.

Another group of podcasters will continue to be like public radio offering things simular to what podcasting now offers. A collision of ideology and capitalism is on the horizon. Cost must somehow be underwriten so there will be a bluring of the purist and the capitalist as efforts to find ways of supporting programs becomes a objective of survival.

HIstory of RADIO

Wireless experiments of the 19th century
In the late 19th century it was clear to various scientists and experimenters that wireless communication was possible. Various theoretical and experimental innovations led to the development of radio and the communication system we know today. Some early work was done by local effects and experiments of electromagnetic induction. Many understood that there was nothing similar to the "ethereal telegraphy" and telegraphy by induction; the phenomena being wholly distinct. Wireless telegraphy was beginning to take hold and the practice of transmitting messages without wires was being developed. Many people worked on developing the devices and improvements.

Faraday

James Clerk Maxwell, a theoretical physicist who developed a set of equations describing electromagnetic waves. These later later became known as Maxwell's equations.
In 1831, Michael Faraday began a series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. The relation was mathematically modelled by Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor, but did not complete his work involving that proposal.

Maxwell
Between 1861 and 1865, based on the earlier experimental work of Faraday and other scientists, James Clerk Maxwell developed his theory of electromagnetism, which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves. In 1873 Maxwell described the theoretical basis of the propagation of electromagnetic waves in his paper to the Royal Society, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field."

William Henry Ward
In April 1872 William Henry Ward received U.S. Patent 126,356 for radio development. However, this patent did not refer to any known scientific theory of electromagnetism and could never have received and transmitted radio waves.

Mahlon Loomis
A few months after Ward received his patent, Mahlon Loomis of West Virginia received U.S. Patent 129,971 for a "wireless telegraph" in July 1872. This patent utilizes atmospheric electricity to eliminate the overhead wire used by the existing telegraph systems. It did not contain diagrams or specific methods and it did not refer to or incorporate any known scientific theory. It is substantially similar to William Henry Ward's patent and could not have transmitted and received radio waves.

Edison (1875)
Towards the end of 1875, while experimenting with the telegraph, Thomas Edison noted a phenomenon that he termed "etheric force", announcing it to the press on November 28. He abandoned this research when Elihu Thomson, among others, ridiculed the idea. The idea was not based on the electromagnetic waves described by Maxwell.

David E. Hughes
In 1878, David E. Hughes was the first to claim to have transmitted and received radio waves when he noticed that his induction balance caused noise in the receiver of his homemade telephone. He demonstrated his discovery to the Royal Society in 1880 but was told it was merely induction. His aim was not to communicate by radio and his equipment was not designed to do so.

Calzecchi-Onesti
In 1884, Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti at Fermo in Italy invented a primitive device that responded to radio waves. It consisted of a tube filled with iron filings, called a "coherer". This device was a critical discovery because it would later be developed to become the first practical radio detector.

Edouard Branly
Between 1884 and 1886, Edouard Branly of France produced an improved version of the coherer.In 1885, Edison took out U.S. Patent 465,971 on a system of radio communication between ships (which later he sold to Marconi). The patent, however, was not based on the transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves.

Hertz
Between 1886 and 1888, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz studied Maxwell's theory and validated it through experiment. He demonstrated the transmission and reception of the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell and thus was the first person to intentionally transmit and receive radio. He discovered that the electromagnetic equations could be reformulated into a partial differential equation called the wave equation. Famously, he saw no practical use for his discovery. For more information see Hertz's radio work.

Stubblefield
Claims have been made that Murray, Kentucky farmer Nathan Stubblefield developed radio between 1885 and 1892, before either Tesla or Marconi, but his devices seemed to have worked by induction transmission rather than radio transmission.

Landell de Moura
Between 1893 and 1894, Roberto Landell de Moura, a Brazilian priest and scientist, conducted experiments in wireless transmissions. He did not publicize his achievement until 1900, when he held a public demonstration of a wireless transmission of voice in São Paulo, Brazil on June 3.

Beginnings of radio
Nikola Tesla developed means to reliably produce radio frequencies, publicly demonstrated the principles of radio, and transmitted long distant signals. He holds the US patent for the invention of the radio, as defined as "wireless transmission of data".
There are varying disputed claims about who invented radio, which in the beginning was called "wireless telegraphy". The key invention for the beginning of "wireless transmission of data using the entire frequency spectrum", known as the spark-gap transmitter, has been attributed to various men. Marconi equipped ships with lifesaving wireless communications and established the first transatlantic radio service. Tesla developed means to reliably produce radio frequency electrical currents, publicly demonstrated the principles of radio, and transmitted long distance signals.

Nikola Tesla
In 1891 Tesla began his research into radio. He later published an article, "The True Wireless", concerning this research. In 1892 he gave a lecture called "Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency", in London (Available at Project Gutenberg) In 1893, at St. Louis, Missouri, Tesla gave a public demonstration of "wireless" radio communication. Addressing the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and the National Electric Light Association, he described in detail the principles of radio communication.
The apparatus that Tesla used contained all the elements that were incorporated into radio systems before the development of the "oscillation valve", the early vacuum tube. Tesla initially used sensitive electromagnetic receivers, that were unlike the less responsive coherers later used by Marconi and other early experimenters.
Afterward, the principle of radio communication (sending signals through space to receivers) was publicized widely from Tesla's experiments and demonstrations. Various scientists, inventors, and experimenters began to investigate wireless methods. For more information see Tesla's wireless work.

Oliver Lodge
Oliver Lodge transmitted radio signals on August 14, 1894 (one year after Tesla, five years after Heinrich Hertz and one year before Marconi) at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Oxford University. (In 1995, the Royal Society recognized this scientific breakthrough at a special ceremony at Oxford University. For more information, see Past Years: An Autobiography, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p231.)
On 19 August 1894 Lodge demonstrated the reception of Morse code signalling via radio waves using a "coherer". He improved Edouard Branly's coherer radio wave detector by adding a "trembler" which dislodged clumped filings, thus restoring the device's sensitivity. In August 1898 he got U.S. Patent 609,154, "Electric Telegraphy", that made wireless signals using Ruhmkorff coils or Tesla coils for the transmitter and a Branly coherer for the detector. This was key to the "syntonic" tuning concept. In 1912 Lodge sold the patent to Marconi.

Jagdish Chandra Bose
In November 1894, the Indian physicist, Jagdish Chandra Bose, demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in Calcutta, but he was not interested in patenting his work. Bose ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using electromagnetic waves, proving that communication signals can be sent without using wires. He was thus the first to send and receive radio waves over a significant distance but did not commercially exploit this achievement.
The 1895 public demonstration by Bose in Calcutta was before Marconi's wireless signalling experiment on Salisbury Plain in England in May 1897. In 1896, the Daily Chronicle of England reported on his UHF experiments: "The inventor (J.C. Bose) has transmitted signals to a distance of nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious and exceedingly valuable application of this new theoretical marvel."

Alexander Popov
Popov was the first man to demonstrate the practical applications of radio waves.
In 1895, the Russian physicist Alexander Popov built a coherer. On May 7, 1895, Popov performed a public demonstration of transmission and reception of radio waves used for communication at the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, using his coherer: this day has since been celebrated in Russia as "Radio Day". He did not apply for a patent for this invention. Popov's early experiments were transmissions of only 600 yards (550 m). Popov was the first to develop a practical communication system based on the coherer, and is usually considered by the Russians to have been the inventor of radio.
Around March 1896 Popov demonstrated in public the transmission of radio waves, between different campus buildings, to the Saint Petersburg Physical Society. (This was before the public demonstration of the Marconi system around September 1896). Per other accounts, however, Popov achieved these results only in December, 1897; that is, after publication of Marconi's patent. In 1898 his signal was received 6 miles (9.7 km) away, and in 1899 30 miles away. In 1900, Popov stated at the Congress of Russian Electrical Engineers that,
"the emission and reception of signals by Marconi by means of electric oscillations was nothing new, as in America Nikola Tesla did the same experiments in 1893."
Later Popov experimented with ship-to-shore communication. Popov died in 1905 and his claim was not pressed by the Russian government until 1945.
Around 1895: 3-way near photofinish for first use of radio
In February 1893, Tesla delivers "On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena" before the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia.
In 1895, Marconi receives a telegraph message without wires a short distance (below a mile), but he did not send his voice over the airwaves.
In March 1895, Popov transmitted radio waves between campus buildings in Saint Petersburg, but did not apply for a patent.
In 1896, Tesla detected transmissions from his New York lab of low frequency (50,000 cycle per second) undamped waves with a receiver located at West Point, "a distance of about 30 miles (48 km)."

Mobilephone

A mobile phone or mobile (also called cellphone and handphone,as well as cell phone, wireless phone, cellular phone, cell, cellular telephone, mobile telephone or cell telephone) is a long-range, electronic device used for mobile telecommunications (mobile telephony, text messaging or data transmition) over a cellular network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. In addition to the standard voice function, current mobile phones may support many additional services, and accessories, such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth, infrared, camera with video recorder and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video, MP3 player, radio and GPS. Most current mobile phones connect to a cellular network consisting of switching points and base stations (cell sites) owned by a mobile network operator (the exception is satellite phones, which are mobile but not cellular).
As opposed to a radio telephone, a mobile phone offers full duplex communication, automatised calling to and paging from a public switched telephone network (PSTN), and handoff (American English)/handover (British/European English) during a phone call when the user moves from one cell (base station coverage area) to another. A mobile phone offers wide area service, and should not be confused with a cordless telephone, which also is a wireless phone, but only offer telephony service within a limited range, e.g. within a home or an office, through a fixed line and a base station owned by the subscriber.
The International Telecommunication Union estimated that mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide would reach approximately 4.1 billion by the end of 2008.Mobile phones have gained increased importance in the sector of Information and communication technologies for development in the 2000s and have effectively started to reach the bottom of the economic pyramid.

Birth of computer

Before the 1920s, computers (sometimes computors) were human clerks that performed computations. They were usually under the lead of a physicist. Many thousands of computers were employed in commerce, government, and research establishments. Most of these computers were women, and they were known to have a degree in calculus. Some performed astronomical calculations for calendars.
After the 1920s, the expression computing machine referred to any machine that performed the work of a human computer, especially those in accordance with effective methods of the Church-Turing thesis. The thesis states that a mathematical method is effective if it could be set out as a list of instructions able to be followed by a human clerk with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight.
Machines that computed with continuous values became known as the analog kind. They used machinery that represented continuous numeric quantities, like the angle of a shaft rotation or difference in electrical potential.
Digital machinery, in contrast to analog, were able to render a state of a numeric value and store each individual digit. Digital machinery used difference engines or relays before the invention of faster memory devices.
The phrase computing machine gradually gave away, after the late 1940s, to just computer as the onset of electronic digital machinery became common. These computers were able to perform the calculations that were performed by the previous human clerks.
Since the values stored by digital machines were not bound to physical properties like analog devices, a logical computer, based on digital equipment, was able to do anything that could be described "purely mechanical." Alan Turing, known as the Father of Computer Science, invented such a logical computer known as the Turing Machine, which later evolved into the modern computer. These new computers were also able to perform non-numeric computations, like music.
From the time when computational processes were performed by human clerks, the study of computability began a science by being able to make evident which was not explicit into ordinary sense more immediate.